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Abstract

The Agreement Governing the Activities of States on the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies of 1979 enshrines that the moon as a Common Heritage of Mankind (CHM), which highlights equitable sharing. This is considered a reason why the Agreement only attracted 17 member States. In order to return to the moon by 2028, the United States arranged the Artemis Accords. This non-binding arrangement discusses the utilization of space resources and the non-appropriation principle under international space law. The Artemis Accords can be interpreted as a subsequent practice related to space law treaties. However, the accord excludes the Moon Agreement, which gained criticism that the accord subtly enables the full commercialization of space resources. In 2026, the Artemis Accords has 61 member States with various economic statuses. Among the Southeast Asian countries, Singapore, Thailand, Malaysia and the Philippines have joined the Artemis Accords, and the latter is a party to the Moon Agreement. However, there is no study of the Artemis Accords from the perspective of developing Southeast Asian countries. This paper focuses on international law and developing nations’ perspectives, using Indonesia and Thailand as examples. The historical development of the CHM under the Moon Agreement, the role of the United Nations Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space (UNCOPUOS), and the provision of space resources under the Artemis Accords are examined from an international law standpoint. It discusses the position of non-space-faring nations, such as Indonesia and Thailand, to reflect on the challenges and opportunities in light of this upcoming space mining era.

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