Abstract
This paper examines the legal issues surrounding the utilization of Earth orbit as a valuable and finite resource for Indonesia and other countries by exploring the monism-dualism debate in the context space law discourse in Indonesia. The study starts with the discussions on monism and dualism in Earth orbit regulations. Then, the article explains relevant legal matters on space activities and the varying stances of some States before subsequently discusses legal divergences in Indonesia. The analysis of the article discloses both consistency and inconsistency between Indonesian national and international space law. The findings of this paper reveal that under the framework of monism, Indonesia can contribute to conforming State practices in international legal matters related to space activities through persistent collaboration as opposed to both persistent objection and acquiescence.
References
Journal Articles and Periodicals
Abdurrasyid, Priyatna. “Developing Countries and Use of the Geostationary Orbit.” Acta Astronautica 17, no. 6 (June 1, 1988): 647–52. https://doi.org/10.1016/0094-5765(88)90210-X.
———. “Facts and Issues Concerning the Geostationary Orbit (a Legal View),” 1984. https://dr.ntu.edu.sg/handle/10356/79951.
Abu, Supri and Damanik. “Peran RI dalam Fora Internasional (Perjuangan dalam Menentukan Definition and Delimitation of Outer Space).” In Prosiding Seminar Nasional 2017 Pusat Kajian Kebijakan Penerbangan dan Antariksa-LAPAN: Kebijakan dan Regulasi Kegiatan Penerbangan dan Antariksa menuju Kemandirian Nasional, 65–77. Jakarta, Indonesia, 2018. https://doi.org/10.30536/p.sinaskpa.ii.7.
Ahmad, Shakeel, Fazal Rabbi, and Ahsan Riaz. “Implementation and Incorporation of International Treaties into Domestic Law of Pakistan: A Case Study of International Space Law Treaties.” Global Legal Studies Review VII, no. I (March 30, 2022): 67–73. https://doi.org/10.31703/glsr.2022(VII-I).09.
Alby, F, D Alwes, L Anselmo, H Baccini, C Bonnal, R Crowther, W Flury, et al. “The European Space Debris Safety and Mitigation Standard.” Advances in Space Research, Space Debris, 34, no. 5 (January 1, 2004): 1260–63. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.asr.2003.08.043.
Alfathimy, Deden Habibi Ali. “Posisi Indonesia terhadap Rekomendasi Group of Governmental Experts on Transparency and Confidence-Building Measures in Outer Space Activities,” 204–14. Surabaya, Indonesia, 2019. https://doi.org/10.30536/p.sinaskpa.iii.15.
Alfathimy, Deden Habibi Ali, Totok Sudjatmiko, and Euis Susilawati. “Ketimpangan Pemanfaatan Orbit Geostasioner (GSO) Dalam Lingkungan Sistem Dunia.” Intermestic: Journal of International Studies 4, no. 1 (November 29, 2019): 88. https://doi.org/10.24198/intermestic.v4n1.6.
Antoni, Ntorina, Christina Giannopapa, and Kai-Uwe Schrogl. “Legal and Policy Perspectives on Civil–Military Cooperation for the Establishment of Space Traffic Management.” Space Policy 53 (August 2020): 101373. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.spacepol.2020.101373.
Ardes, Runggu Prilia, and Ridha Aditya Nugraha. “Assessing the Liability Convention and the Indonesian Space Act in Light of Active Debris Removal.” Hasanuddin Law Review 6, no. 3 (December 7, 2020): 199–212. https://doi.org/10.20956/halrev.v6i3.2600.
Barrios Villarreal, Andrea, ed. “International Standards as Part of International Law.” in International Standardization and the Agreement on Technical Barriers to Trade, 58–77. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2018. https://doi.org/10.1017/9781108591348.003.
Bederman, David J. “Acquiescence, Objection and the Death of Customary International Law.” Duke Journal of Comparative & International Law 21, no. 1 (2011 2010): 31–46. https://heinonline.org/HOL/P?h=hein.journals/djcil21&i=35.
Danilenko, Gennady M. “International Law-Making for Outer Space.” Space Policy 5, no. 4 (November 1, 1989): 321–29. https://doi.org/10.1016/0265-9646(89)90052-0.
———. “Outer Space and the Multilateral Treaty-Making Process.” High Technology Law Journal 4, no. 2 (1989): 217–48. https://heinonline.org/HOL/P?h=hein.journals/berktech4&i=223.
Hart, H.L.A. “Kelsen’s Doctrine of the Unity of Law.” in Normativity and Norms: Critical Perspectives on Kelsenian Themes, edited by Stanley L. Paulson, 553–81. Oxford University Press, 1999. https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198763154.003.0030.
Haryono, Harry P. “Wilayah Udara Indonesia: Sudahkan Kita Memanfaatkan Dan Menjaganya? Air Territory.” Indonesian Journal of International Law 6, no. 4 (2009): 520–38. https://heinonline.org/HOL/P?h=hein.journals/indjil6&i=554.
Hertzfeld, Henry R., Brian Weeden, and Christopher D. Johnson. “Outer Space: Ungoverned or Lacking Effective Governance? New Approaches to Managing Human Activities in Space.” The SAIS Review of International Affairs 36, no. 2 (2016): 15–28. https://www.jstor.org/stable/27001431.
Hofmann, Mahulena, and Federico Bergamasco. “Space Resources Activities from the Perspective of Sustainability: Legal Aspects.” Global Sustainability 3 (2020): e4. https://doi.org/10.1017/sus.2019.27.
Ibrahim, Marwah. “Historical Overview: Planning and Development of Indonesia’s Domestic Communications Satellite System PALAPA.” Online Journal of Space Communication 4, no. 8 (2004): 2. https://ohioopen.library.ohio.edu/spacejournal/vol4/iss8/2.
Jakhu, Ram. “Legal Issues of Satellite Telecommunications, The Geostationary Orbit, and Space Debris.” Astropolitics 5, no. 2 (September 24, 2007): 173–208. https://doi.org/10.1080/14777620701580828.
Kelsen, Hans. “Sovereignty.” in Normativity and Norms: Critical Perspectives on Kelsenian Themes, edited by Stanley L. Paulson, 525–36. Oxford University Press, 1999. https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198763154.003.0028.
Khatwani, Naman. “Common Heritage of Mankind for Outer Space.” Astropolitics 17, no. 2 (May 4, 2019): 89–103. https://doi.org/10.1080/14777622.2019.1638679.
MacAvoy, Joseph J. “Nuclear Space and the Earth Environment: The Benefits, Danagers, and Legality of Nuclear Power and Propulsion in Outer Space Symposium Issue I - Linking the Environment and Human Rights: A Global Perspective - Note.” William and Mary Environmental Law and Policy Review 29, no. 1 (2005 2004): 191–234. https://heinonline.org/HOL/P?h=hein.journals/wmelpr29&i=203.
Martinez, Peter. “Development of an International Compendium of Guidelines for the Long-Term Sustainability of Outer Space Activities.” Space Policy, February 14, 2018. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.spacepol.2018.01.002.
———. “The Role of Soft Law in Promoting the Sustainability and Security of Space Activities.” Journal of Space Law 44, no. 2 (2020): 522–64. https://heinonline.org/HOL/P?h=hein.journals/jrlsl44&i=538.
———. “The UN COPUOS Guidelines for the Long-Term Sustainability of Outer Space Activities.” Journal of Space Safety Engineering 8, no. 1 (March 1, 2021): 98–107. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsse.2021.02.003.
Migaud, Michael R. “Protecting Earth’s Orbital Environment: Policy Tools for Combating Space Debris.” Space Policy 52 (May 1, 2020): 101361. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.spacepol.2020.101361.
Muhammad, Alif Nurfakhri. “Revisiting U.S.-China Aggressive Use of Outer Space: A Comprehensive International Law Outlook towards Military Activities in Outer Space Culture & International Law IV.” Indonesian Journal of International Law 16, no. 4 (2019 2018): 473–504. https://heinonline.org/HOL/P?h=hein.journals/indjil16&i=452.
Permatasari, Yunita. “The Urgency of Guidelines for the Long-Term Sustainability of Outer Space Activities for Indonesia.” Global Strategis 13, no. 2 (November 25, 2019): 63–74. https://doi.org/10.20473/jgs.13.2.2019.63-74.
Pershing, Abigail D. “Interpreting the Outer Space Treaty’s Non-Appropriation Principle: Customary International Law from 1967 to Today Note.” Yale Journal of International Law 44, no. 1 (2019): [xiii]-178. https://heinonline.org/HOL/P?h=hein.journals/yjil44&i=161.
Putro, Yaries Mahardika, Ridha Aditya Nugraha, and Taufik Rachmat Nugraha. “Geostationary Orbit Slot Reconceptualization In Accommodating the South.” Indonesian Journal of International Law 19, no. 3 (August 29, 2022): 1–31. https://scholarhub.ui.ac.id/ijil/vol19/iss3/2/.
Rathore, Ekta, and Biswanath Gupta. “Emergence of Jus Cogens Principles in Outer Space Law.” Astropolitics 18, no. 1 (January 2, 2020): 1–21. https://doi.org/10.1080/14777622.2020.1723353.
Salmeri, Antonino. “The Integration between National and International Regulation of Space Resource Activities under Public International Law.” Journal of Space Law 43, no. 1 (2019): 60–84. https://heinonline.org/HOL/P?h=hein.journals/jrlsl43&i=64.
Simarangkir, Elia Israel. “Analisis Status Yuridis Ruang Angkasa Dari Perspektif Hukum Agraria Indonesia Dan Space Treaty 1967.” Risalah Hukum 7, no. 2 (2011): 1–21. https://e-journal.fh.unmul.ac.id/index.php/risalah/article/view/178.
Sloup, George Paul. “Outer Space Delimitation Proposals: Enlightened Jurisprudence or Celestial Shakedown--Some Implications for Private Enterprise Symposium: The Roll of Private Enterprise in Outer Space: International Legal Implications.” Houston Journal of International Law 2, no. 1 (1980 1979): 87–112. https://heinonline.org/HOL/P?h=hein.journals/hujil2&i=95.
Starke, Joseph G. “Monism and Dualism in the Theory of International Law.” in Normativity and Norms: Critical Perspectives on Kelsenian Themes, edited by Stanley L. Paulson, 537–52. Oxford University Press, 1999. https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198763154.003.0029.
Steele, Jonathan. “Luxembourg and the Exploitation of Outer Space.” Nottingham Law Journal 29, no. 1 (2021): 32–42. https://heinonline.org/HOL/P?h=hein.journals/notnghmlj29&i=38.
Supancana, Ida Bagus Rahmadi. “How the Progressive Development of Outer Space Law Affects the Formulation of National Space Legislation: The Experience of Indonesia.” Air and Space Law 40, no. 1 (February 1, 2015). https://kluwerlawonline.com/api/Product/CitationPDFURL?file=Journals\AILA\AILA2015009.pdf.
Yu, Xu. “UNCOPUOS 50 Years on: Assessing Current Dynamics and Exploring Its Future Role.” Space Policy, Highlight: Assuring The Sustainability Of Space Activities, 28, no. 3 (August 1, 2012): 146–48. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.spacepol.2012.06.009.
Zahari, A. R., and F. I. Romli. “Analysis of Suborbital Flight Operation Using PESTLE.” Journal of Atmospheric and Solar-Terrestrial Physics, Space Science for Sustainability, 192 (October 1, 2019): 104901. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jastp.2018.08.006.
Books and Book Chapters
Alfathimy, Deden Habibi Ali. “Application of Sustainability Concept to Near-Earth Space as an Integral Part of Earth-System in the Context of Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs).” In Seminar Nasional Kebijakan Penerbangan Dan Antariksa IV (SINAS KPA–IV) 2019, 97–109. In Media, 2020. http://karya.brin.go.id/id/eprint/11927/1/Prosiding_Deden%20Habibi%20Ali%20Alfathimy%20_KKPA_2019.pdf.
Bowen, Bleddyn. “Space Oddities: Law, War and the Proliferation of Spacepower.” In Routledge Handbook of War, Law and Technology. Routledge, 2019.
Bowen, Bleddyn E. Original Sin: Power, Technology and War in Outer Space. Hurst Publishers, 2022.
Buck, Susan J. The Global Commons: An Introduction. London: Routledge, 2017. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315086415.
Dunk, Frans G. von der. Advanced Introduction to Space Law. Cheltenham, UK ; Northampton, MA, USA: Edward Elgar Publishing Ltd, 2020.
Froehlich, Annette, and Vincent Seffinga. The United Nations and Space Security: Conflicting Mandates between UNCOPUOS and the CD. Springer, 2019.
Philip, D. E. “Non-Appropriation of Outer Space.” Space Law: Legal Framework for Space Activities, 2024, 95.
Sheehan, Michael. The International Politics of Space. London, United Kingdom: Taylor & Francis Group, 2007. http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/leicester/detail.action?docID=325088.
Wedenig, Stefan-Michael, and Jack Wright Nelson. “The Moon Agreement: Hanging by a Thread?” SSRN Scholarly Paper. Rochester, NY, January 26, 2023. https://papers.ssrn.com/abstract=4373605.
Legal Documents
ISO. “ISO 24113:2019.” International Standards Organization (ISO), April 12, 2022. https://www.iso.org/standard/72383.html.
Web Sources
Exarchou, Eleni. “Allocation of the Radio-Frequency Spectrum and Satellite Orbits : Jurisprudential Perspectives.” Working Paper. European University Institute, 2023. https://cadmus.eui.eu/handle/1814/75748.
Setjen DPR RI. “RUU tentang Wawasan Nusantara.” Government. Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat Republik Indonesia, 2016. https://www.dpr.go.id/uu/detail/id/4.
Other Sources
Fahmi. Kegiatan Direktorat Jenderal Sumber Daya dan Perangkat Pos dan Informatika SDPPI Kominfo Dalam Pengelolaan Pemanfaatan Orbit Nasional. Personal interview, May 2022.
Nugraha, Ridha Aditya. “The Urgency of Space Traffic Management in Scheduled Commercial Space Flight.” Guadalajara, Mexico: International Astronautical Federation, 2016.
Recommended Citation
Alfathimy, Deden Habibi Ali and Ardes, Runggu Prilia
(2025)
"Persistent Collaboration: Between International and Indonesian National Law on the Utilization of Earth Orbit,"
Indonesian Journal of International Law: Vol. 22:
No.
3, Article 6.
DOI: 10.17304/ijil.vol22.3.1666
Available at:
https://scholarhub.ui.ac.id/ijil/vol22/iss3/6
