Abstract

Smoking leads to disease and disability as well as harm nearly every organ of the body. Furthermore, smoking of tobacco is known to cause pulmonary dysfunction and lead to complications, pain, or even death. This study aimed to measure the risk factors for the respiration of carbon monoxide among smokers. A cross-sectional design was implemented by involving 156 smokers in Karyajaya Subdistrict, Palembang City. The dependent variable was carbon monoxide levels (ppm), while the independent variables were smoking frequency, duration, and the last period of smoking. The carbon monoxide levels (ppm) measured with a PiCO + Smokerlyzer® device from Bedfont Scientific Limited were the research tool and the independent variables of the questionnaire. The Pearson Correlation and multiple linear regression were used for the analysis. The results of the multiple linear regression analysis revealed that smoking duration assessment is related to carbon monoxide respiration after controlling smoking frequency, the last period of smoking, and the distance of residence to sources of exposure. The smoker's respiration of carbon monoxide level was 72.5% influenced by the duration, frequency, last period of smoking, and distance of residence to sources of exposure. Reducing the frequency of smoking and stopping may prevent and control carbon monoxide respiration.

References

1. Liu J, Liang Q, Frost-Pineda K, Muhammad-Kah R, Rimmer L, Roethig H, et al. Relationship between biomarkers of cigarette smoke exposure and biomarkers of inflammation, oxidative stress, and platelet activation in adult cigarette smokers. Cancer Epidemiology, Biomarkers & Prevention. 2011; 20 (8): 1760–9.

2. Lee F-Y, Chen W-K, Lin C-L, Kao C-H. Carbon monoxide poisoning and subsequent cardiovascular disease risk: a nationwide populationbased cohort study. Medicine (Baltimore). 2015; 94 (10): e624.

3. Garg J, Krishnamoorthy P, Palaniswamy C, Khera S, Ahmad H, Jain D, et al. Cardiovascular abnormalities in carbon monoxide poisoning. American Journal of Therapeutics. 2018; 25 (3): e339–48.

4. Bagaitkar J, Demuth DR, Daep CA, Renaud DE, Pierce DL, Scott DA. Tobacco upregulates P. gingivalis fimbrial proteins which induce TLR2 hyposensitivity. PLoS One. 2010; 5 (5).

5. Owens EO. Endogenous carbon monoxide production in disease. Clinical Biochemistry. 2010; 43 (15): 1183.

6. Brvar M, Luzar B, Finderle Ž, Šuput D, Bunc M. The time-dependent protective effect of hyperbaric oxygen on neuronal cell apoptosis in carbon monoxide poisoning. Inhalation Toxicology. 2010; 22 (12): 1026–31.

7. Moore E, Chatzidiakou L, Kuku M-O, Jones RL, Smeeth L, Beevers S, et al. Global associations between air pollutants and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease hospitalizations. A systematic review. Annals of the American Thoracic Society. 2016; 13 (10): 1814–27.

8. McCracken JP, Schwartz J, Diaz A, Bruce N, Smith KR. Longitudinal relationship between personal CO and personal PM2.5 among women cooking with woodfired cookstoves in Guatemala. PLoS One. 2013; 8 (2).

9. McLeish AC, Zvolensky MJ. Asthma and cigarette smoking: a review of the empirical literature. ournal of Asthma. 2010; 47 (4): 345–61.

10. Santus P, Bassi L, Radovanovic D, Airoldi A, Raccanelli R, Triscari F, et al. Pulmonary rehabilitation in COPD: a reappraisal (2008–2012). Pulmonary Medicine. 2013.

11. Sahin H, Naz I, Varol Y, Aksel N, Tuksavul F, Ozsoz A. COPD patients with severe diffusion defect in carbon monoxide diffusing capa - city predict a better outcome for pulmonary rehabilitation. Revista Portuguesa de Pneumologia (English Ed.). 2016; 22 (6): 323–30.

12. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Carbon monoxide poisoning. National Environmental Public Health Tracking Network, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention; 2016.

13. Javors MA, Hatch JP, Lamb RJ. Sequential combination of self-report, breath carbon monoxide, and saliva cotinine to assess smoking status. Drug and Alcohol Dependence. 2011; 113 (2): 242–4.

14. Koczulla A-R, Noeske S, Herr C, Jörres RA, Römmelt H, Vogelmeier C, et al. Acute and chronic effects of smoking on inflammation markers in exhaled breath condensate in current smokers. Respiration. 2010; 79 (1): 61–7.

15. Sangani RG, Ghio AJ. Lung injury after cigarette smoking is particle related. International Journal of Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease. 2011; 6: 191.

16. Jayes L, Haslam PL, Gratziou CG, Powell P, Britton J, Vardavas C, et al. SmokeHaz: systematic reviews and meta-analyses of the effects of smoking on respiratory health. Chest. 2016; 150 (1): 164–79.

17. Nur Atikah AH, Wee LH, Nur Zakiah MS, Chan CMH, Mohamed Haniki NM, Swinderjit JS, et al. Factors associated with different smoking statuses among Malaysian adolescent smokers: a cross-sectional study. BMC Public Health. 2019; 19 (4) :579.

18. Maga M, Janik MK, Wachsmann A, Chrząstek-Janik O, Koziej M, Bajkowski M, et al. Influence of air pollution on exhaled carbon monoxide levels in smokers and non-smokers. A prospective cross-sectional study. Environmental Research. 2017; 152: 496–502.

19. Sandberg A, Sköld CM, Grunewald J, Eklund A, Wheelock ÅM. Assessing recent smoking status by measuring exhaled carbon monoxide levels. PLoS One. 2011; 6 (12).

20. Hampson NB, Piantadosi CA, Thom SR, Weaver LK. Practice recommendations in the diagnosis, management, and prevention of carbon monoxide poisoning. American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine. 2012; 186 (11): 1095–101.

21. Milne B, Vandenkerkhof E, Phelan R, Brien J, Forkert L, Nakatsu K. Does carbon monoxide play a role in cigarette smoke dependence?. Addiction Research & Theory. 2012; 20 (2): 138–44.

22. Musallam KM, Rosendaal FR, Zaatari G, Soweid A, Hoballah JJ, Sfeir PM, et al. Smoking and the risk of mortality and vascular and respiratory events in patients undergoing major surgery. JAMA Surgery. 2013; 148 (8): 755–62.

23. Zhang Q, Li L, Smith M, Guo Y, Whitlock G, Bian Z, et al. Exhaled carbon monoxide and its associations with smoking, indoor household air pollution and chronic respiratory diseases among 512,000 Chinese adults. International Journal of Epidemiology. 2013; 42 (5): 1464–75.

Download

Share

COinS