Challenges in the Enforcement of International Legal Framework against Child Soldiering
Abstract
The war crime of child soldiering has contagiously blossomed necessitating the application of several prohibitive legal standards for its extermination. As the impact of this heinous and atrocious crime soars, the multi-dimensional scope for the protection against child soldiering which cut across various aspects of international law becomes more sternly entrenched. This paper aimed at interrogating this global and worrying phenomenon in the light of existing legal framework. Though doctrinal in nature, the paper relied on both primary and secondary sources of data. It is found that notwithstanding the high conglomeration of prohibitive norms as stipulated in international humanitarian law, international human rights law, international labour law and international criminal law. It is the recommendation of this paper that more synergy be deployed towards ensuring effective co-operation amongst stakeholders with a view to enthroning purpose driven enforcement which has been identified one of the innumerable challenges confronting the effectiveness of international law generally. Furthermore, State parties should align themselves fully towards according due obedience to the provisions of applicable international instruments against child soldiering on the basis of principle of pacta sunt servanda.
References
Abidi Catherine Baillie, “Prevention, Protection and Participation: Children Affected by Armed Conflict” Refugee and Conflict 25 (2021):1-3 https://doi.org/10.3389/fhumd.2021.624133
Adenekan V and Adewumi A., “Towards a Legislative Reform of the Doctrine of Doli
Incapex Under the Nigerian Criminal Code Act” Journal of Law and Policy and Globalization 15 (2021):32-36
Akinmoladum Andrew I. and Ottuh P O O., “Global Etiquette on Gender Issues in Peace keeping: An Integrative Panacea Approach to Global Peace” Global Journal of Research and Review 2 no. 1(2015): 14-29
Akseer Nadia et al, “Women, Children and Adolescents in Conflict Countries: An
Assessment of Inequalities in Intervention Coverage and Survival” B M Journal of Global Health 5 no 1 (2020):2 https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjgh-2019-002214
Allen Tim , Trial Justice : The International Criminal Court and the Lord’s Resistance Army (Kampala, Zed Books 2006) 1-14;
Amerasinghe C.F., “History and Sources of the Law of War” Sri Lanka Journal of
International Law, 16 (2004):263 — 264.
Ariye Ekpotuatin Charles, “The United Nations and its Peace Purpose: An Assessment” Journal of Conflictology 5 no. 1(2014):24-30 http://dx.doi.org/10.7238/joc.v5i1.1827
Baines Erin , Buried in the Heart : Women, Complex Victimhood and the War in Northern Uganda (Cambridge University Press 2017):1-4
Bohme Johannes “The Extraordinary Trial of the Child Soldier Who Became a Brutal Rebel Commander” Narrative Paper (2015):1-2
Boothby W H., “Direct Participation in Hostilities: A Discussion of the ICRC Interpretive Guidance” Journal of International Human and Legal Studies 1 (2010):14
Brehm Hollie Nyeseth et al, “We Came to Realise we are Judges : Moral Careers of Elected Law Jurists in Rwandas Gacaca Courts” International Journal of Transitional Justice 14 no 2 [2020]:443-450 https://doi.org/10.1093/ijtj/ijaa018
Casalin Deborah, “Recruitment and Use of Child Soldiers in International Law Prohibition
and Elimination” Encyclopedia of UN [2020] :1-2 DOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-71058-7_4-1
Cassimatis Anthony E., “International Humanitarian Law, International Human Rights Law
and Fragmentation of International Law” International and Comparative Law Quarterly 56 (2007):623-628
Chapel L, “Women, Gender and International Institutions: Exploring New Opportunities at the International Criminal Courts” Policy and Society 22 no. 1 (2001):3- 8
Charles Anthony and Brown Aaron , “The Minimum Age of Criminal Responsibility: The Need for an Holistic Approach” Youth Justice 21no 3 (2019): 101-105 http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1473225419893782
Charlesworth Hilary and Chinkin C.M., The Boundaries of International Law: A Feminist Analysis (Manchester, Manchester University Press, 2000):1-5
Clark Philip, The Gacaca Courts Post Genocide Justice and Reconciliation in Rwanda (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2010):1-14 .
Clark R S. , “Statute of the ICC Considered at First Review Conference on the Court”
Gottingen Journal of International Law 2 no 2 (2010):89 — 91;
Cunnen Chris, “Arguments for Raising the Minimum Age of Criminal Responsibility”
[2017]:11-15
Cutten A., “Does the ILO Have Distinctive Legal Protection of Child Soldiers?” Human Rights International Discourse, 5 (11) (2011):63-67
Crisis Watch, “4 Ways The War in Yemen has Impacted Women and Girls” Crisis Watch
Papers 2019 :1 -4 available at www ue.org, accessed on 28 Sept 2023
David C., “Training for Peace keeping: Towards Increased Understanding of Conflict
Resolution” International Peace keeping (2013):80-91
Dayemi M.K and Mollase N, “International Legal Frameworks on Child Soldiers Protection”
Dimitrie Cantemir Faculty of Law Cluj Napoca Romania Journal 12 no. 1(2008): 175-181
Debarre Alice S., “Rehabilitation and Reintegration of Juvenile War Criminals: A De facts Ban on Their Criminal Prosecution” Denver Journal of International Law and Policy 44 no. 1(2015):1-4
Diaz Sarah J., “An Elusive Mandate: Enforcing Prohibition on the Use of Child Soldiers’
Children’s Legal Rights Journal 39 no. 3(2020):1-4
Donnel O and Muggar R., “Next Generation Disarmament, Demobilization and Reintegration “International Journal of Security and Development 4 no 3 (2015): 6-12
Dormann Knut, “War Crimes under the Rome Statute of the ICC with Special Focus on the
Negotiations on the Elements of Crimes” Max Planck Year Book of U.N Law 7 (2003):341-407
Doughty Kristin Conner, Remediation in Rwanda, Grassroots Legal Forums (Pennsylvania, Philadelphia University, 2016) :1-6
Drumbl Mark A., “Reimagining Child Soldiers in International Law and Policy”Journal of International Law 107 no. 3 (2013):724
Egbe-Olawari D.J.,, “Civil Wars, Child Soldiers and Post Conflict Peace Building in West
Africa” African Research Review 8 no. 2 (2014): 110 DOI:10.4314/afrrev.v8i2.20
El-Zeildy Mohammed M. “The Principle of Complementary: A New Machinery to Implement International Criminal Law” Michigan Journal of International Law (2000): 869 — 975
Ebeide Tarila Marclint et al, “Disarmament, Demobilization, and Reintegration : Analyzing the Outcomes of Nigeria’s Post-Amnesty Programme Journal of Security and Development 9 no. 1 (2020):1-8 http://dx.doi.org/10.5334/sta.752
Ebeide Tarila Marclint, “Beyond Rebellion: Uncaptured Dimensions of Violent Conflicts and the Implications for Peace Building in Nigerians Niger Delta” African Security 10 no. 1(2017):25-30 https://www.africabib.org/htp.php?RID=411943685
Green C L., The Contemporary Law of Armed Conflict (3rd edn, Huris Publishing 2008):26
Geneuss J., “Fostering a Better Understanding of Universal Jurisdiction: A Comment on the
AU-EU Expert
Gbimire Bishwanbhar “Contributions and Challenges: Female Participations in UN Peace keeping Missions” International Journal of Humanities and Social Science 7 no 3 (2017):207-212
Glymn Natalie, “Understanding Care Givers as Youth in Society: A Theoretical
Frameworkfor Studying the Transition Out of Care” Children and Youth Services Review 121 (2021):1-4 http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2020.105829
Goodwill Gill Guy S. and Cohn Ilene , Child Soldiers: The Role of Children in Armed Conflicts (Oxford, Oxford University Press, 1994):6-9
Gray Phillip W., “Weaponised Non Combatants: A Moral Conundrum of Future
Assymetrical Warfare” Journal of Military Ethics 13 no. 3 (2014):240-243 http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/15027570/2014.1755009
Greppi Edoardo, “The Evolution of Individual Responsibility Under International Law”
International Review of Red Cross 835 (1999):26.
Gretchen B., “From Female Engagement Teams to Engagement Platoons: The Evolution of Gendered Community Engagement in UN Peace keeping, International Peace Institute [2021]:1-4 available at https://www.ipinst.org2021/11/evolution-of-genderedcommunity/-engagament-in-unpeace-ops
Grover S C., Child Soldiers Victims of Generational Forcible Transfer: Exonerating Child
Soldiers Charged With Grave Conflict Related International Crimes (Berlin, Springer Publishing, 2012):1-6
Hange W.I., “Gender Dimensions of DDR — Beyond Victimization and Dehumanization:
Tracking the Thematic” International Feminist Journal of Politics 22 no.2 (2020):206 -207
Hanson Karl, “International Children’s Rights and Armed Conflicts” Human Rights
International Legal Discourse, 5 no.1 (2011):40-46
Harvey Rachel, Children and Armed Conflict: A Guide to International Humanitarian and
Human Rights Law (International Bureau for Children’s Rights, 2001):36
Hayson L., “Raising the Minimum Age of Criminal Responsibility to 14 Years” Journal of
Pediatrics and Child Health 58 no. 9 (2022):1504-1507.
Holmes Georgina, “Situating Agency, Embodied Practices and Norm Implementation in Peace Keeping” International Peace Keeping 26 no. 1 (2019):55-60 http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13533312.2018.1503934
Hortensia D T., Posse Gutierrez , “The Relationship Between International Humanitarian Law and International Criminal Tribunals” IRRC 861 (2006): 93.
Human Rights Watch, No Place for Children: Child Recruitment in Northern Uganda 2003: 1 -4 available at www.hrw.org, accessed on 28 Sept 2023
Ibanga M., “Evolution of International Humanitarian Law, Past Development and Current
Trends” Sri Lanka Journal of International Law 11 (1999): 131. DOI: 10.37974/ALF.258.
Jalloh Charles Chernor, “Special Court for Sierra-Leone: Achieving Justice” Michigan Journal of International Law 33 no 3 (2003): 396-440,
Jenning K.M., “Conditional Protection? Sex, Gender and Discourse in UN Peace Keeping” International Studies Quarterly 63 no 1 (2019):30-33
Joel Adeyeye and Atidoga Daniel Friday, “African Union Peace Keeping Operations : Challenges and Emerging Issues” Scholars International Journal of Law , Crime and Justice 4 no. 8 (2021):493
Johnson Dustin, “A Critical Feminist Approach to Implementing Vancouver Principles”
Allons-Y Journal of Children, Peace and Security 5 (2021): 58-60 https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6016-5147
Johnson Dustin “Women as the Essential Protectors of Children?: Gender and Child Protection in UN Peace keeping” International Peace keeping 29 no. 2 (2022):282-290
Johnson Dustin and Walsh Allyssa, “Gender, Peace keeping and Child Soldiers: Training and Research Implementation of the Vancouver Principles “[2020] :1-4 available at <www.research gate.net, accessed on 29 July 2023
Jurasz I., Reparations for Gendered Harms of the International Criminal Court: Towards Transformative Gender Just Reparations? ( Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2019) :1- 6
Justice Initiative, “Thomas Lubanga Appeal at the ICC” Background Briefing (2014):1- 2 available at https:// www.justiceinitiative.org, accessed on 14 Sept 2023
Karazsia Zachary, “Evaluating the Success of Disarmament, Demobilization and Reintegration Programs: The Case of Congo-Brazzaville” Journal of Interdisciplinary Conflict Science 1 no. 2 (2015):83-85
Kargbo F.B , “International Peace Keeping and Child Soldiers: Problems of Security and Rebuilding” Cornell International Law Journal 32 no. 3 (1999):114
Kavakir 1rem Askar, “Ongoing Conflict in Yemen: A Proxy War” Turkish Journal of
TESAM Academy 5 no 2 [2018]:123
Kindersley Nicki and Oystein Rolandsen Oystein, “Who Are the Civilians: in the Wars in South Sudan” Security Dialogue 50 [2019]: 1-15 https://doi.org/10.1177/0967010619863262
Kirkby Coel, “Rwandas Gacaca Courts : A Preliminary Critique” Journal of African Law 50 no 2 [2006]: 94-100
Knight Andy, “Disarmament, Demobilization and Reintegration and Post-Conflict Peace
Building in Africa: An Overview” Journal of African Security 1no 1 (2008):36-46
Knight Mark and Ozerdem Alpaslan, “Guns, Camps and Cash: Disarmament, Demobilization and Reinsertion of Former Combatants in Transitions From War to Peace” Journal of Peace Research 41 no. 1 (2004): 499-501
Kononenko Julia, “Prohibiting the Use of Child Soldiers: Contested Norm in Contemporary
Human Rights Discourse” Nordic Journal of Human Rights 34 no. 2 (2016):99 https://doi.org/10.1080/18908131.20.16.1200293
Krings Britta Lisa, “The Principles of Complementary and Universal Jurisdiction in
International Criminal Law: Antagonists Perfect Match?” Goettingen Journal of International Law (2012):737-763.
Larimore S., “Child Soldiering and How the United States Can up its Game Against Those States that Still Continue this Practice” Thomas Jefferson Law Review 42 (2019): 28, 51
Li Shigong “Should the Age of Criminal Responsibility be Lowered? Beijing Law Review
(2020):34
Lingappa Anuradha, “Application of Child Soldiers Prevention Act to Myanmar: A Case
Study in How a Simple Statute insufficiently Addresses a Complex Problem” Hastings International and Comparative Law Review 45(1) (2021):39-41
Litwin Oren J., “Weaponised Non Combatants, Child Soldiers and Targeting Innocents”
Journal of Military Ethics 19 no. 1 (2020):56-60
Machel Graca, The Impact of War on Children (Hurst and Co, 2001) :11-15; Graca Machel,
Impact of Armed Conflict on Children; Report of Graca Machel:Selected Highlights (UN Dept of Public Information, 1995) :33-34
Madsen Jessica Nann, “Boy Child —Soldiers in the DRC: A Problem and Policy —Oriented Analysis” [2012]:1-4
Markovic Darko M., and Ivana Spaic, “Minimum Age of Criminal Responsibility as Part of
Criminal Policies” Culture of Polis Journal 19 no 3 (2022):178-180 DOI:10.51738/Kpolisa2022.19.3r131ms
Mc Mullin Jaremey, “Reintegrating Young Combatants: Do Child Centred Approaches
Leave Children and Adults Behind” Third World Quarterly 32 no. 4 (2011):734-735 https://doi.org/10.1080/01436597.2011.567006
Mc Mullin Jaremey, Ex combatants and the Post Conflict State: Challenges of
Reintegration (Palgrave, Macmillan 2013): 1-3
Madzima Tadzie , “The Effects of Conflict are Felt Hardest by Women and Children” Peace Insight Papers 2013: 1-2 available at www.peaceinsight., accessed on 30 July 2023
Mergeslberg Ben, “Between Two Worlds: Former LRA Soldier in Northern Uganda” in T Allen and K Vlassenroots (eds), The Lord’s Resistance Army Myth and Reality (Kampala, Zed Books, 2010):4-6 http://dx.doi.org/10.5040/9781350223240.ch-008
Milena Jaksic, “Looking for Child Soldier” Journal of Legal Anthropology 4 no. 1 (2020) 1-10http://dx.doi.org/10.3167/jla.2020.070703; Marielle Debos, Living by Gun in Chad : Combatants, Impurity and State Formation (Zed Books, 2016): 1-11
Mlaba Khanyi, “How do Women and Girls Experience the Worst of War Global Citizens” Paper 2022: 1-2 available at www.vglobalcitizen.org, accessed on 25 Sept 2023
Morin R, “The Difficult Transition From Military to Civilian Life” Military and Veterans Report [2011] : 1-4 available at www.v.pewresearch.org, accessed on 30 July 2023.
Nowotny Jordan, “The Limits of Post Genocide Justice in Rwanda:Accessing Gacaca From the Perspectives of Survivors” Contemporary Justice Review 23 no. 4 (2019): 401-411 http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10282580.2020.171936
Nwachukwu Okubor Cecilia, “Armed Conflict Under the International Humanitarian Law”
Nnamdi Azikiwe University Journal of Internal Law and Jurisdiction 5 (2014):62.
Odermatt Jedd, “Between Law and Reality: “New Wars” and Internationalized Armed
Conflict” Amsterdam Law Forum 5 no .3 (2013):19-20
Omodanisi Beatrice Kemi, “Child Soldiers in Times of War: Issues Arising” Journal of Law, Policy and Globalization 93 (2020):12-16 DOI: 10.7176/JLPG/93-02
Onapajo Hakeem “Children in Boko Haram Conflict : The Neglected Face of A Decade of Terror in Nigeria” African Security (B) (2020):195-200
OsasonaTosin, “Victims or Vanguards of Terror : Use of Girls as Suicide Bombers by Boko Haram” Law, Criminology and Criminal Justice Journal 8 no. 11[2022]:12 https://doi.org/10.1080/23311886.2022.2028956
Pillay Anthony L.,“The Minimum Age of Criminal Responsibility International Variation and
the Dual Systems Model in Neurodevelopment” Journal of Child and Adolescent Mental Health 31 no 3 [2019] :224-226 doi: 10.2989/172.80583.2019.1692851
Pillay Anthony L and Willows Clive, “Accessing Criminal Capacity of Children: A
Challenge to the Capacity of Mental Health Professionals” Journal of Child and Mental Health 27 no. 2 (2015): 91-101DOI:10.2989/17280583.2015.1040412
Prasad A.N. and Prasad P.L.,, “Children in Conflict Zones” Medical Journal of Armed Forces India) 65 (2009):166-169 doi.10.1016/S0377-1237(09) 80134-2
Quanet Guhlam Mohammed et al, “ Recruitment and Use of Child Soldiers in Afghanistan Cultural Traits as Pivotal Factor” Journal of Islamic World and Politics 5 no. 20 (2021):260, https://doi.org/10.18196/jiwp.v5i2.11897
Robinson Robbie J.A., “The Right of Child Victims of Armed Conflict to Reintegration and Recovery” Potchetstroom Electronic Law Journal 15 no. 1 (2017):45.
Rosen David M., “Who is a Child?- The Legal Conundrum of Soldiers”Conn Journal of International Law 25 (2009):81, 86 Corpus ID:157693256
Reuben B and Stohl R., “Just War Theory and Child Soldiers, in Rethinking the Just War Tradition” in Brough et al (eds) (Sunny Press, 2007):131-140.
Richards Paul, Fighting for Rain Forests: War, Youth and Resources in Sierra Leone (London, Heinemann ,1996) 1-6
Sanghi S., “A World With no Child Soldiers: Accessing the Impact of the Vancouver Principles” Cambridge International Law Journal (2017-2018): 1-2 available at www.elganline.com/ciij, accessed on 30 July 2023
Sarjoon Attanbawan and Yusoff Mohammed Agus, “The United Nations Peace Keeping Operations and Challenges “ Academic Journals of Interdisciplinary Studies 8 no 3 (2019):1-6 DOI: 10.36941/ajis-2019_0018
Shepler Susan, Childhood Deployed: Remaking Child Soldiers in Sierra Leone (Nyu, Nyu Press, 2014) 1-5
Shepler Susan, “The Rites of Child Global Discourses of Youth and Reintegrating Child
Soldiers in Sierra Leone” Journal of Human Rights 4 no. 2 (2005):197-201
Sivakumaran Sandesh , “War Crimes 64: The Special Court for Sierra-Leone” Journal of
International Criminal Justice 8 (2010):1009-1034 https://doi.org/10.1093/jicj/mqq056
Smirnykh Sergeh, International Legal Status of Child Soldiers as Participants of Armed Conflicts Russian Journal of Comparative Law 6 no 2[2019] :85-90 http://dx.doi.org/10.13187/rjcl.2019.2.85
Sonja Grover, “Child Soldiers as Non Combatants: The Inapplicability of the Refugee Conventions Exclusion Clause” International Journal of Human Rights 12 [2008] :53, 61
Sprink L.,“Data Driven Protection: Linking Threat Analysis to Planning in UN Peace keeping Operations (Center for Civilians in Conflict 2018) 8-9
Stearns J.K., Dancing in the Glory of Monsters: The Collapse of the Congo and the Great War of Africa (New York, New York Public Affairs, 2011): 1-2
Talentino Andrea Kathryn and Pearson Francis S., “Weapons of War, Weapons of Peace: DDR Processes in Peace Making” International Peace keeping 27 no. 1 (2020):152-155 http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13533312.2019.1623676
Toth Orsolya, “Girl Child Soldiers: Towards a Gender-Sensitive Approach?” Cojourn 3 no. 3 (2018):62-67 doi:10.14267/cojourn.2018v33a7
Tiegenbos Jolien and Vlassenroot Koen, “Going Home? A Systematic Review of Literature on Displacement, Retusrn and Cycles of Violence Politics of Return” Working Paper I [2018]:1-4 http://doi.org/10.21953/lse.90o7jyrklz54
UNICEF, “No Peace Without Justice: International Criminal Law and Children” 2020:1-2 available at www.v.pewresearch.org, accessed on 24 Sept 2023
UNICEF, “Child Soldiers in Sudan and South Sudan” 2015: 1-4 available at from http://www.unicef.org/emerg/files/hild/soldiers.pdf accessed on 30 Aug 2023
United Nations, Action for Peace Keeping Declaration of Shared Commitments on UN Peace Keeping Operations https://peacekeeping.un.org/sites/default/files/a4p.declaration-en-pdf
Urban G., The Age of Criminal Responsibility ( Australia, Australian Institute of Criminology
2000):2
Vigh Henrik E., Navigating Terrains of War: Youth and Soldering in Guinea Bissau (Bergmann Books, 2006):1-2 https://doi.org/10.3167/9781845451486
Washefort Guy, International Law and Child Soldiers (London, Bloomsbury Publishing, 2014): 54
Weissbrodt David, “The Role of Human Rights Committee in Interpreting and Developing International Humanitarian Law” Human Rights Journal 24 (2011):116-121
Williamson John, The Disarmament, Demobilization and Reintegration of Child Soldiers: Social and Psychological Transformation in Sierra Leone” Intervention 4 no.3 (2006):185-200
Recommended Citation
Ekpa, Shedrack; Atidoga, Daniel Friday; and okereke, Obinna Nnanna
(2025)
"Challenges in the Enforcement of International Legal Framework against Child Soldiering,"
Indonesian Journal of International Law: Vol. 22:
No.
4, Article 1.
Available at:
https://scholarhub.ui.ac.id/ijil/vol22/iss4/1