•  
  •  
 

Abstract

This article discusses China’s foreign policy toward African countries by examining Sino-Tanzanian South-South Cooperation (SSC). By utilising a modified, state-centric social constructivism, this study identifies domestic and international realms of China’s normative structure responsible for shaping China’s identities within the international community. It also explains how China can reconcile its competing identities between a Global South and rising great power statuses, which gives China the ability to combine its normative interest (i.e., Global South solidarity) and material interest (i.e., the geopolitical-geoeconomic strategy) into a diverse project of SSC with positive and proactive perception from Tanzania. This study contributes toward the theorisation of China’s SSC, China’s geopolitics-geoeconomy, and China’s foreign policy toward Africa at once. This study has shown that social constructivism can explain a reconciliation between a state’s normative obligation and material desire within the international community.

Bahasa Abstract

Artikel ini bertujuan untuk mengkaji politik luar negeri Tiongkok terhadap Afrika dengan menganalisis Kerja Sama Selatan-Selatan (KSS) Sino-Tanzania. Dengan menggunakan konstruktivisme sosial yang dimodifikasi dan berpusat pada negara, studi ini mengidentifikasi ranah domestik dan internasional dari struktur normatif Tiongkok yang bertanggung jawab untuk membentuk identitas Tiongkok dalam komunitas internasional. Ini juga menjelaskan bagaimana Tiongkok dapat menyelaraskan identitasnya yang bersaing , yakni sebagai Negara Selatan dan status kekuatan besar yang sedang bangkit, sehingga Tiongkok dapat melengkapi kepentingan normatifnya (yaitu, solidaritas Negara Selatan) dan kepentingan material (yaitu, strategi geopolitik-geoekonomi) menjadi proyek KSS yang beragam dengan persepsi positif dan proaktif dari Tanzania. Studi ini memberikan kontribusi terhadap teorisasi KSS Tiongkok, geopolitik-geoekonomi Tiongkok, dan kebijakan luar negeri Tiongkok terhadap Afrika sekaligus. Dalam konteks ini, penelitian ini menunjukkan bahwa konstruktivisme sosial dapat menjelaskan rekonsiliasi antara kewajiban normatif negara dan keinginan material dalam komunitas internasional.

References

Abdalla, A. A. (2006). The Political Economy of Relations between Sudan and China. In G. Le Pere, China in Africa Mercantilist Predator or Partner in Development (pp. 172-186). Johannesburg: The South African Institute of International Affairs & Midrand, The Institute for Global Dialogue.

Abegunrin, O., & Manyeruke, C. (2020). China's Power in Africa: A New Global Order. London: Palgrave Macmillan.

Agarwala, N., & Chaudhary, R. D. (2021). ‘Made in China 2025’: Poised for Success? India Quarterly: A Journal of International Affairs, 77(3), 424–461.

Alden, C., & Hughes, C. R. (2009). Harmony and Discord in China's Africa Strategy: Some Implications for Foreign Policy. The China Quarterly, 199, 563-584.

Arifon, O., Huang, Z. A., Zheng, Y., & Melo, A. Z. (2019). Comparing Chinese and European Discourses regarding the “Belt and Road Initiative”. Retrieved May 8, 2020, from Revue française des sciences de l’information et de la communication: Comparing Chinese and European Discourses regarding the “Belt and Road Initiative”

Austin, J. L. (1975). How to Do Things with Words (2nd ed.). (J. O. Urmson, & M. Sbisà, Eds.) Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

Bahemu, E. (2022, October 1). Chinese firm wades into Tanzania, Uganda oil pipeline saga. Retrieved March 16, 2023, from The Citizen: https://www.thecitizen.co.tz/tanzania/news/national/chinese-firm-wades-into-tanzania-uganda-oil-pipeline-saga-3969396

Barboza, D. (2008, November 9). China Unveils Sweeping Plan for Economy. Retrieved April 5, 2020, from The New York Times: https://www.nytimes.com/2008/11/10/world/asia/10china.html

Brandt, W. (1980). North-South: A Programme for Survival. New York: Independent Commission on International Development Issues.

Buhi, J. (2014). Foreign Policy and the Chinese Constitutions During the Hu Jintao Administration. Boston College International & Comparative Law Review, 37(2), 241-279.

Carrai, M. A. (2019). Sovereignty in China: A Genealogy of a Concept Since 1840. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Chanaka, T. T. (2022). China–Africa Cooperation: A Model for South–South Cooperation. In H. Wang, & M. Lu, China and the World in a Changing Context: Perspectives from Ambassadors to China (pp. 33-42). Berlin: Springer.

China's Embassy in Tanzania. (2008, April 4). China and Tanzania on Economic and Trade Relations and Economic and Technical Cooperation. Retrieved March 16, 2023, from Embassy of the People's Republic of China in the United Republic of Tanzania: http://tz.china-embassy.gov.cn/eng/sgbx/jjmy/200804/t20080404_7261748.htm

Chinese State Council. (2015, May 19). ‘Made in China 2025’ plan issued. Retrieved June 8, 2023, from The State Council of the People's Republic of China: http://english.www.gov.cn/policies/latest_releases/2015/05/19/content_281475110703534.htm

CIKD. (2023, May 30). About Us. Retrieved May 30, 2023, from Center for International Knowledge on Development: http://archive.cikd.org/english/aboutus

Cooper, A. F. (2016). The BRICS: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Creswell, J. D. (2013). Research Design: Qualitative, Quantitative, and Mixed Methods Approaches. Thousand Oaks: SAGE Publication.

della Porta, D. (2008). Comparative Analysis: Case-Oriented versus Variable-Oriented Research. In D. Della Porta, & M. Keating, Approaches and Methodologies in the Social Science: A Pluralist Perspective (pp. 198-222). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Duggan, N. (2020). Competition and Compromise among Chinese Actors in Africa: A Bureaucratic Politics Study of Chinese Foreign Policy Actors. Singapore: Palgrave Macmillan.

Elbadri, M. A.-S. (2022). The Land of the Dragon and the Pharaohs: Egypt and China in the New Millennium. In H. Wang, & M. Lu, China and the World in a Changing Context: Perspectives from Ambassadors to China (pp. 145-149). Berlin: Springer.

Elnor, R. M. (2022). Prospects for China–Africa Cooperation. In H. Wang, & M. Lu, hina and the World in a Changing Context: Perspectives from Ambassadors to China (pp. 55-58). Berlin: Springer.

Esteban, M., & Olivié, I. (2022). China and Western Aid Norms in the Belt and Road: Normative Clash or Convergence? A Case Study on Ethiopia. Journal of Contemporary China, 31(134), 267-284.

Fitzgerald, J. (1998). Awakening China: Politics, Culture, and Class in the Nationalist Revolution. Palo Alto: Stanford University Press.

Fujita, M. (2017). Chinese Involvement in Tanzania and Its Local Impact. Lewisburg: Bucknell University.

Gazibo, M., & Mbabia, O. (2012). Reordering International Affairs: The Forum on China-Africa Cooperation. AUSTRAL: Brazilian Journal of Strategy and International Relations, 1(1), 51-74.

Grimm, S. (2014). China–Africa Cooperation: Promises, Practice and Prospect. Journal of Contemporary China, 23(90), 993-1011.

Gros, J.-G., & Fung, H.-G. (2019). Theorizing Sino-African Relations: A Constructivist Perspective. Journal of International Relations and Foreign Policy, 7(1), 39-54.

Guijarro, Ó. G. (2022, July 2). China and Africa, a geopolitical pairing that works. Retrieved March 9, 2023, from Atalayar: https://atalayar.com/en/content/china-and-africa-geopolitical-pairing-works

He, K., & Feng, H. (2013). Xi Jinping’s Operational Code Beliefs and China’s Foreign Policy. The Chinese Journal of International Politics, 6, 209-231.

Hobson, J. M. (2000). The State and International Relations. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Huang, J. (2018, May). The Study of Soft Power: China’s Presence in African Region. M. A. Thesis. New York, New York, United States of America: City University of New York.

Huang, M., Xu, X., & Mao, X. (2019). South-South Cooperation and Chinese Foreign Aid. London: Palgrave Macmillan.

ISSCAD. (2016). About: The Institute. Retrieved May 30, 2023, from Institute of South-South Cooperation and Development: https://www.isscad.pku.edu.cn/about/theinstitute/index.htm

Iyabo, A. O. (2018, April). South-South cooperation and the prospects of global economic balancing: a study of regulatory frameworks of Nigeria-China relations. PhD Dissertation. Potchefstroom, Northwest Province, South Africa: North-West University.

Johannesson, P., & Perjon, E. (2014). An Introduction to Design Science. Cham: Springer.

Katzenstein, P. J. (1996). Cultural Norms and National Security. Ithaca: Cornell University Press.

Lamont, C. K. (2015). Research Methods in International Relations. London: Sage.

Li, X., Banik, D., Tang, L., & Wu, J. (2014). Difference or Indifference: China’s Development Assistance Unpacked. IDS Bulletin, 45(4), 22-35.

Liu, H. (2021). China engages the Global South: From Bandung to the Belt and Road Initiative. Global Policy, 13(S1), 11-22.

Makundi, H., Huyse, H., & Develtere, P. (2016). Cooperation between China and Tanzania on ICT: fish, fishing tackle or fishing skills? Journal of Chinese Economic and Business Studies, 14(2), 129-149.

Malanga, A. N. (2022, September 24). Bagamoyo Port construction to start in 2023. Retrieved March 16, 2023, from The Citizen: https://www.thecitizen.co.tz/tanzania/news/national/bagamoyo-port-construction-to-start-in-2023-3960166

Mao, Z. (1998). Africa's Talk is to Struggle against Imperialism (February 21st, 1959). In Z. Mao, Mao Zedong on Diplomacy (pp. 286-287). Beijing: Foreign Language Press.

March, J., & Olsen, J. (1989). Rediscovering Institution. New York: Free Press.

Marques, J., & Spanakos, A. (2014). South-South relations and the English School of International Relations: Chinese and Brazilian ideas and involvement in Sub-Saharan Africa. Revista Brasileira de Política Internacional, 57(spe), 138-156.

Maru, M. T. (2019, January 6). Why Africa Loves China. Retrieved April 4, 2020, from Al Jaazeera: https://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/opinion/africa-loves-china-190103121552367.html

Matambo, E. (2014, June). The Evolution of China-South Africa Relations: A Constructivist Interpretation. Doctoral Dissertation. Pietermaritzburg, KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa: University of KwaZulu-Natal.

Mbarawa, M. (2012). Investment in ICT in Tanzania. The Southern Africa ICT forEducation Summit 2012. Victoria Falls.

McBride, J., Berman, N., & Chatzky, A. (2023, February 2). China’s Massive Belt and Road Initiative. Retrieved June 8, 2023, from Council on Foreign Relations: https://www.cfr.org/backgrounder/chinas-massive-belt-and-road-initiative#chapter-title-0-3

MERICS. (2019, September 24). The Party Leads on Everything: China’s Changing Governance in Xi Jinping’s New Era. Retrieved May 8, 2020, from MERICS: https://www.merics.org/en/china-monitor/the-party-leads-on-everything

MFA PRC. (2022, November 3). Joint Statement on Establishing a Comprehensive Strategic Cooperative Partnership between the People’s Republic of China and the United Republic of Tanzania. Retrieved March 9, 2023, from Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the People's Republic of China: https://www.fmprc.gov.cn/mfa_eng/wjdt_665385/2649_665393/202211/t20221103_10800022.html

MFA PRC. (2015, September 27). Xi Jinping Delivers Speech at High-level Roundtable on South-South Cooperation, Expounding on Cooperation Initiatives on South-South Cooperation in the New Era and Stressing to Uplift South-South Cooperation Cause to a New High. Retrieved May 9, 2020, from Ministry of Foreign Affairs, the People's Republic of China: https://www.fmprc.gov.cn/mfa_eng/topics_665678/xjpdmgjxgsfwbcxlhgcl70znxlfh/t1302399.shtml

MOC. (2014, July 22). Star Time’s $265 m Investment Right. Retrieved June 8, 2023, from Chinese Ministry of Commerce: http://tz.china-embassy.gov.cn/eng/ddbd/201407/t20140722_6094875.htm

Morgan, D. L. (2007). Paradigms Lost and Pragmatism Regained Methodological Implications of Combining Qualitative and Quantitative Methods. Journal of Mixed Methods Research, 1(1), 48-76.

Morris, C. (2018, December 17). China, A Responsible Global Power? Retrieved May 8, 2020, from Australian Institute of International Affairs: http://www.internationalaffairs.org.au/resource/china-a-responsible-global-power/

Nyabiage, J. (2021, June 28). Multibillion-dollar China, Tanzania projects could be back on cards. Retrieved March 16, 2023, from South China Morning Post: https://www.scmp.com/news/china/diplomacy/article/3139083/multibillion-dollar-china-tanzania-projects-could-be-back

Oirere, S. (2023, March 7). Chinese JV Awarded Final Section of $2.2B Tanzania Rail Project. Retrieved March 16, 2023, from Engineering News-Record: https://www.enr.com/articles/56039-chinese-jv-awarded-final-section-of-22b-tanzania-rail-project

Railway Technology. (2021, January 8). Chinese companies win $1.32bn Tanzanian rail contract. Retrieved March 16, 2023, from Railway Technology: https://www.railway-technology.com/news/chinese-companies-tanzanian-rail-contract/

Reus-Smit, C. (1999). The Moral Purpose of the State. Princeton: Princeton University Press.

Rugumamu, S. M. (2014). Sino-Africa Relations: The Dynamics of Seized and Squandered Opportunities. The African Review: A Journal of African Politics, Development and International Affairs, 41(2), 1-32.

Serem, S. (2022). Solid Kenya–Sino Friendship Underscored in the Belt and Road Initiative. In H. Wang, & M. Lu, China and the World in a Changing Context: Perspectives from Ambassadors to China (pp. 59-62). Berlin: Springer.

Shangwe, M. J. (2017). China’s Soft Power in Tanzania: Opportunities and Challenges. China Quarterly of International Strategic Studies, 3(1), 79-100.

Shelton, G. (2016). The FOCAC Process and Sino-African Strategic Partnership. China Quarterly of International Strategic Studies, 2(2), 259-276.

Six, C. (2009). The Rise of Postcolonial States as Donors: a challenge to the development paradigm? Third World Quarterly, 30(6), 1103-1121.

Talin, B. (2021, January 18). Chinas Grand Strategy – “Made in China 2025” (MIC25). Retrieved June 8, 2023, from MoreThanDigital: https://morethandigital.info/en/chinas-grand-strategy-made-in-china-2025-mic25/

TanzaniaInvest. (2022, November 5). Tanzania Sign 15 Strategic Agreements With China, Including Avocado Exports. Retrieved March 16, 2023, from TanzaniaInvest: https://www.tanzaniainvest.com/economy/trade/strategic-agreements-with-china-samia

TanzaniaInvest. (2023). China-Tanzania. Retrieved March 16, 2023, from TanzaniaInvest: https://www.tanzaniainvest.com/china

Tasker, B. (2018). South-South Cooperation and International Norm Change: Brazil and Venezuela’s Development Assistance Programmes, 2005–2016. London: University College London.

Tran, T. T. (2017, November 7). Pragmatism: How to Connect Positivism and Constructivism in Doing Research. Retrieved March 3, 2021, from WebQDA: https://www.webqda.net/pragmatism-how-to-connect-positivism-and-constructivism-in-doing-research/?lang=en

Trefzer, A., Jackson, J. T., McKee, K., & Dellinger, K. (2014). The Global South and/in the Global North: Interdisciplinary Investigations. The Global South, 8(2), 1-15.

Wang, F.-L., & Elliot, E. A. (2014). China in Africa: presence, perceptions and prospects. Journal of Contemporary China, 23(90), 1012-1032.

Wang, Z. (2014). China’s Bilateral Aid to the South Pacific Region: A Constructivist Analysis. M.A. Thesis. Wellington, Wellington Region, New Zealand: Victoria University of Wellington.

Weber, H., & Winanti, P. S. (2016). The ‘Bandung Spirit’ and Solidarist Internationalism. Australian Journal of International Affairs, 70(4), 391-406.

Wu, Y.-S. (2020). The forum on China-Africa cooperation (FOCAC)—A co-constituted relationship. In T. Iwata, New Asian Approaches to Africa: Rivalries and Collaborations (pp. 3-30). Wilmington: Vernon Press.

Xia, L. (2001). China: A responsible great power. Journal of Contemporary China, 10(26), 17-25.

Xia, Y. (2019, August 31). Chinese Manufacturing and Agricultural Investment in Tanzania: A Scoping Study. Working Paper(31), pp. 1-32.

Xinhua. (2003, December 16). Speech by Premier Wen at Opening Ceremony of China-Africa Cooperation Forum. Retrieved May 8, 2020, from China Facts and Figures 2002: http://www.china.org.cn/english/international/82534.htm

Xinhua. (2015, October 12). Chinese-built gas project launched in Tanzania. Retrieved March 12, 2023, from The State Council of the People's Republic of China: http://english.www.gov.cn/news/top_news/2015/10/12/content_281475209865008.htm

Xinhua. (2021, December 2). Full Text: Keynote speech by Chinese President Xi Jinping at opening ceremony of 8th FOCAC ministerial conference. Retrieved June 8, 2023, from Forum on China-Africa Cooperation: http://www.focac.org/eng/ttxxsy/202112/t20211202_10461079.htm

Xu, X., Ma, J., & Li, X. (2019). Peer-to-Peer Sharing in South–South Cooperation: From Village-Based LearningCenter to China–Tanzania Joint Learning Center. In M. Huang, X. Xu, & X. Mao (Eds.), South-south Cooperation and Chinese Foreign Aid (pp. 127-142). Singapore: Palgrave Macmilan.

Zhang, F. (2015). Chinese Hegemony: Grand Strategy and International Institutions in East Asian History. Palo Alto: Stanford University Press.

Zhang, Y. (2019). Technology and Knowledge Transfer: A Case Study of China’s Agricultural Technology Demonstration Center in the United Republic of Tanzania. In M. Huang, X. Xu, & X. Mao (Eds.), South-south Cooperation and Chinese Foreign Aid (pp. 113-125). Singapore: Palgrave Macmillan.

Zhou, T., & Zhang, H. (2018). China’s Belt and Road Initiative: An Opportunity to Re-energize South-South Cooperation. China Quarterly of International Strategic Studies, 4(4), 1-18.

Download

Share

COinS